Bara Bazar an archaeological site in Jhinaidaha district, about 16 km north of Jessore town, contains the ruins of an old settlement spread over an extensive area along the northern bank of the moribund Bhairab River. The area is dotted about with many old mounds on either side of the Jessore - Jhinaidaha highway and the railway lines running closely parallel to it.

Numerous scattered mounds littered with old bricks and other cultural debris cover an area of over 6.44 km. The site is particularly notable for a large number of ancient ponds (about 126) choked with weeds and silt, which provided sweet water to the old settlement in its halcyon days. Among these ruins many stone columns and bases of obliterated Hindu-Buddhist buildings can still be traced. Local people point to a mound which they believe contains the buried remains of the palace of the legendary Sri Ram Raja, the king of Champaknagar or Champa Nagar, who is believed to have been defeated by a certain Gorai Gazi.

An elegant single domed ruined square mosque (6.12m sides) of the Sultanate period with three arched entrances on the east and one each on the north and south sides having curvilinear cornice and a veranda on the east, is located about 4.8 km east of the metal road in Bilat village. The little mosque was beautifully embellished with terracotta floral art on the wall surface. The monument has now been largely renovated.

The name of the old township is believed to have originated from certain bara or twelve obscure Muslim saints who settled here in some remote and unspecified time. But it is likely that its original name was Bada Bazar, that is to say, a large market place, which might have flourished here once upon a time. Some scholars believe that Khan Jahan with his followers temporarily settled here before proceeding to Khalifatabad (Bagerhat) via Murali-Qasba.

Close to the Gorar Mosque and south of a dusty road, there are a couple of low mounds overlooking an old tank; locally known as the site of a Jor Bangla structure. To the farther north Pir Pukur Mound, Hitampur Old Mosque, Galakata Dighi Mound, Sri Ram Rajar Dighi Mound, Sadikpur or Cheragdani Mosque and Pond, Gazi Kalu-Champavati's Grave Mound, Kotali Mosque, Satgachia Gayebana Adina Mosque etc are located. To the southern side too there are many ancient mounds among which Manohar Mosque, Hasil Hasil Mosque, Mithapukuria mound and tanks etc are noteworthy. Among these monuments, the satgachia mosque, Manohar Mosque and Sadikpur Cheragdani Mosque are important pre-Mughal remains and have recently been excavated by the Archaeological Department.

In 1978, while local villagers were excavating a large mound at Satgachia for reclamation of arable land they discovered by chance the remains of a 35-domed pre-Mughal mosque under the mound overlooking a pond known as Adina Pukur. They named it as Gayebana Adina Mosque, or a covered mosque perched on the bank of Adina pond.

The Manohar Mosque in Sadikpur Mauza was probably covered with 35 low domes. Although this relatively more dilapidated monument could not be fully excavated, it seems to have a ground plan similar to the Satgachia Mosque and is probably its contemporary. These two large multi-domed (35 domed) pre-Mughal mosques are the second and third largest of the series of which the first is the imposing shatgumbad mosque.

Another interesting but smaller mosque of about the same period is located in Sadikpur Mauza and is locally known as Cheragdani Mosque. It is a square structure with 6.12m sides and has three arched doorways on the east and one each on the north and the south. As such it was probably roofed over with three squat domes. On the western wall there were three corresponding mihrabs decorated with terracotta floral art. According to an inscription salvaged from here, it was built by a certain Muhammad during the reign of Sultan husain shah in 925 AH/ 1519 AD. Excavations at Bara Bazar has yielded another terracotta Arabic inscription from the Jor Bangla Dighi, dated 800 AH/ 1397 AD, which probably was also fixed over some mosque of that mound. [Nazimuddin Ahmed]

Puthia an upazila in Rajshahi district. Puthia zamindari created by the Mughals in the early 17th century is one of the oldest estates of Bengal. There is a tradition that Nilambar received the title of Raja from Emperor jahangir (1605-1627 AD). A partition of the estate took place in 1744 when the eldest son received a 5^1/2-anna share while the three others received 3^1/2-anna each. The Puthia Raj estate maintained its existence till the abolition of the zamindari system under the East Pakistan Estate Acquisition Act of 1950.

Govinda Temple, Puthia

The two-storied Puthia Rajbari, which is the most notable structure in the area faces a four-storeyed large pyramidal dol mancha on the north, across an open ground and presents an imposing 60.96m frontage. It has two symmetrical projected wings at the east and west ends while its central part, about 15.24m wide, accommodates a grand portal. A 3.05m wide verandah runs along the front and provides access to the large halls behind. The balcony roof is supported on three graceful semi-Corinthian fluted columns, rising up to the upper floor.

Siva Temple, Puthia

The central bay is relieved with a triangular pediment and the parapet decorated with delicate floral plaster relief. The broad verandahs of the terminal bays on the east and the west are carried on four lofty fluted Corinthian columns, similarly shooting up to the upper floor ceiling. This grand palace was constructed by Rani hemantakumari devi in 1895 AD in honour of her mother-in-law Maharani saratsundari devi. At present Lashkarpur Degree College uses this building.

Puthia Rajbari, Rajshahi

The extensive area of the estate, enclosed within a moat, has a number of elegant temples embellished with terracotta sculpture, eg the Pancharatna Govinda Temple, a beautiful little do-chala shrine behind the palace, the hut-shaped Jagaddhatri Temple on the west and the large Shiva Temple at the entrance of the estate. The Shiva Temple, a 19.81m square building, was erected by Rani Bhuvan Mohini Devi in 1823 AD on a high plinth and plastered all over. It is decorated with numerous miniature ratnas on the main tower and on the four smaller towers on the roof of the ground floor. The derelict Puthia palace is now in a state of progressive disintegration. [Mostafizur Rahman]

Ahsan Manzil  situated at Kumartoli of Dhaka on the bank of the Buriganga, was the residential palace and the kachari of the nawabs of dhaka. It has been turned into a museum recently. It was said to be the Rang Mahal of Sheikh Enayetullah, a zamindar of Jamalpur pargana (Barisal) during the time of the Mughals. Having purchased it from his son Matiullah, the french made it their trading centre. Khwaja alimullah bought it from the French in 1830 and converted it into his residence, effecting necessary reconstruction and renovations. Nawab Khwaja Abdul ghani engaged Martin & Company, a European construction and engineering firm, to make a master plan for their residence.

The construction of the palace was begun in 1859 and completed in 1872. Abdul Ghani named it Ahsan Manzil after his son Khwaja ahsanullah. At that time the newly built palace was known as Rang Mahal and the earlier one was called Andar Mahal. On April 7, 1888, a terrible tornado caused severe damage to Ahsan Manzil, particularly the Andar Mahal that was entirely damaged. Nawab Ahsanullah rebuilt the Andar Mahal and also repaired the Rang Mahal using good quality bricks from Raniganj for this purpose. The exquisite dome of the present Rang Mahal was interposed. Ahsan Manzil was badly damaged again by the earthquake of 12 June 1897. However, Nawab Ahsanullah had it repaired again.

Ahsan Manzil is one of the significant architectural monuments of the country. Established on a raised platform of 1 metre, the two-storied palace measures 125.4m by 28.75m. The height of the ground floor is 5 metres and that of the first floor 5.8 metres. There are porticos of the height of the ground floor, both on the northern and southern sides of the palace. An open spacious stairway has come down from the southern portico, extending upto the bank of the river through the front garden. There was once a fountain in the garden in front of the stairs, though it does not exist today. The spacious north and south verandas of both the floors rest on semicircular arches. The verandas and rooms are covered with marble.

To construct the dome of Ahsan Manzil, the square room on the ground floor was given a round shape with brickwork in the corners. The room was then given an octagonal shape near the roof by squinches. This octagonal shape took the form of the drum of the dome. Finally, the kumud kali (buds of lotus) shaped dome was constructed by gradually slanting the eight corners to the peak. The dome is 27.13 m high from the ground.

Ahsan Manzil

Internally, the palace is divided into two symmetrical halves on either side of the dome. There is a large drawing room in the east wing of the first floor. On its northern side there is a library and a card room, and in the eastern corner there are four square rooms. On the western wing of the first floor there is a spacious Jalsaghar with a Hindustani room on the northern side and four square rooms in the western corner. The vaulted artificial ceilings, made of wood, in the drawing room and the Jalsaghar, look very exquisite. The floors of these two rooms are made of wooden planks. On the ground floor there is a big dinning hall and six square rooms in the eastern part. In the western side, there is a gigantic darbar hall and to its north is a billiard room.

The floors of the dining and darbar halls are decorated with white, green and yellow coloured ceramic tiles. The famous strong room, where the valuables of the nawabs used to be stored, was in the middle of the five rooms located in the western half of the ground floor.

There are attractive wooden stairs in the room that is attached to the north of the domed room. The balusters were ornamented with vine leaves made of iron along the railing of the stairs. The wooden ceiling of the room, decorated with geometric designs, is very elegant. A visitor's book bound in gold used to be kept by the stairs during the halcyon days of the nawabs. Distinguished visitors to the palace would note down their observations.

The thickness of the walls of the palace is about 0.78 metres. The doorways are placed within semicircular arches. The inner doors had multi-coloured glasses and the exterior ones were of wood with designs. Wooden beams supported the roof of these rooms.

The height of the two-storeyed inner house is less than the height of the Rang Mahal. Nevertheless, the wide southern verandas on both floors and the parapet on top offer a delicate look that is in harmony with the Rang Mahal. Iron beams have been used in constructing the roof.

Ahsan Manzil, an architectural treasure, is a witness to many historical events of Bangladesh. From the last part of the 19th century to the initial years of Pakistan, the Muslim leadership of East Bengal emerged from this palace. The nawabs of Dhaka used to conduct their court affairs here as chief of the panchayet (village council) everyday. Many anti-Congress meetings were held here under the patronisation of Nawab Ahsanullah, a staunch believer in Muslim identity. Almost all the Viceroys, Governors and Lieutenant Governors of British India who visited Dhaka spent some time at the Ahsan Manzil.

In 1874, Lord northbrook, Governor General of India attended an evening function here in the palace when he came to lay the foundation of a water works installed by Nawab Abdul Ghani. In 1888, Lord dufferin also accepted the hospitality offered at Ahsan Manzil. In 1904 Lord curzon, on a visit to East Bengal, stayed in this palace on 18 and 19 February to win public support for the proposed partition of bengal.

Almost all political activities of Nawab Khwaja sallimullah centred round this palace. Ahsan Manzil was the cradle of the all india muslim league. With the decline of the nawabs of Dhaka, Ahsan Manzil also started to decline. When in 1952 the Dhaka Nawab State was acquired under the East Bengal Estate Acquisition Act, it became impossible for the successors of the nawabs to maintain the palace due to financial constraints. Nawab Khwaja habibullah started living at Paribag Green House soon after the acquisition of the zamindari. The palace was on the verge of collapse in no time as successors rented out rooms without considering its dignity. Over the years illegal occupants turned the place into a filthy slum.

Recognising the historical and architectural importance of the Ahsan Manzil, the government of Bangladesh took the initiative to renovate it. In 1985 Ahsan Manzil and its surroundings were acquired. After the completion of the renovation work in 1992 under the supervision of the Directorate of Public Works and Architecture, it was brought under the control of bangladesh national museum (20 September 1992). A museum has been established there. [Mohammad Alamgir]

Hajiganj Fort  situated on the western bank of the Sitalakshya River at Hajiganj in narayanganj. This Mughal fort was probably established during the time of mir jumla to counter the raids of the Maghs and the portuguese. The fort, quadrangular in size, consists of a pentagonal curtain wall machicolated for muskets with rounded corner bastioins, rampart wall around the wall inside, a free tall square column in a corner, and a gateway towards the river. [Muazzam Hussain Khan]

Hajiganj Fort, Narayanganj

Shatgumbad Mosque is the largest of the Sultanate mosques in Bangladesh and one of the most impressive Muslim monuments in the whole of the Indian subcontinent. It is ascribed to one Khan al-Azam Ulugh Khan Jahan, who conquered the greater part of southern Bengal and named the area khalifatabad in honour of the reigning Sultan nasiruddin mahmud shah (1435-59). khan jahan ruled the region with the seat of administration at Haveli-Khalifatabad, identified with present Bagerhat, till his death in 1459. Such a magnificent building turned into miserably decaying condition with the passage of time. It is however fortunate that the British government initiated measures for its restoration and repair and the process continued under the direct supervision of the successive Departments of Archaeology of Pakistan and Bangladesh. In the early 1980s an effective long-term programme was undertaken to safeguard this historical monument at the instance of UNESCO, and the work is nearing completion.

Plan and description Enclosed originally by an outer wall, the mosque is located on the eastern bank of the Ghoradighi, about three miles west of the present Bagerhat town. The enclosed compound was originally entered through two gateways - one in the east, now restored and repaired, and the other in the north, no longer extant. The eastern gateway, facing cardinally the central archway of the mosque proper, appears to be a monument by itself. It measures 7.92m by 2.44m and consists of an archway having a span of about 2.44m with a beautiful curvature on top.

Shatgumbad Mosque plan

The mosque proper, built mainly of bricks, forms a vast rectangle and measures externally, inclusive of the massive two-storied towers on the angles, 48.77m from north to south and 32.92m from east to west. The interior of the mosque could be entered through arched doorways - eleven on the east, seven on each of the north and south walls and only one on the west wall, which is placed at the western end of the bay immediately to the north of the large central nave. The interior of the mosque, 43.89m by 26.82m, is divided by six rows of pillars into seven longitudinal aisles from north to south and eleven bays running east to west. Each of the eleven bays, excepting that immediately to the north of the central one, ends with a semi-circular mihrab niche at the qibla wall. The mosque has therefore a total of ten mihrabs. The central mihrab, which corresponds to the central nave, is bigger than its flanking counterparts and shows a rectangular projection on the outer side, carried up to roof level.

Shatgumbad Mosque, Begerhat

The doorway arches of the building are of the two-centred pointed type and spring from the waist of the walls. All the archways of the eastern facade, the central one of the north and south walls and the single one of the qibla wall are set within slightly recessed rectangles. The rest of the archways are formed of two successive arches, the inner one being slightly bigger than the outer one. The outer surface of the walls, except the eastern wall, is variegated with vertical offset projections and double recesses. The battlements and cornices of the building are curved. But unlike the usual curvilinear form, the cornice in the eastern facade depicts a peculiar triangular pediment over the central archway - a device that reappeared in the sadi mosque (1652) at egarasindhur in Kishoreganj.

The four circular towers on the exterior angles are massive and taper slightly towards the top. An open-arched chamber tops each of these towers, rising high above roof level, with a small dome as the crown. The upper chamber of the two front towers has four cardinally set arched windows, while those of the two at the back have only a pair - one on the south and the other on the north. The windows of the rear towers are not exactly in the same axis. It is worth mentioning that each of the two front towers contains inside a spiral staircase of 26 steps, which leads to the arched chamber above. The doorway to the staircase can be approached only from within the mosque. Both the doorways have recently been closed by brick filling. Unlike these two front towers, the rear towers are solid upto the roof level and their arched chambers above could only be reached from the roof of the mosque.

The most attractive part of the mosque is its large central nave, running east to west in a longitudinal line. This nave, consisting of seven independent oblong bays about 4.88m by 3.96m each, divides the interior of the mosque into two equal wings and opens out to north and south by pointed archways. The side wings are divided into square bays, numbering seventy in total. The square bays of the side wings, each measuring 3.96m on each side, are covered with inverted cup-shaped domes, while the oblong bays of the central nave are roofed over with chau-chala vaults. These vaults and cup-shaped domes are carried on intersecting arches springing from the pillars, and the corners between the arches are filled with characteristic Bengali pendentives. The building thus exhibits eighty-one domes in total - four on the corner towers, seventy over the side wings and seven chau-chala vaults over the central nave.

The huge multi-domed roof of the building has been supported by ten rows of pillars, six in each row, running from east to west. The mosque has therefore a total of sixty pillars, the majority of whom were of slender stone, while six were massive, encased either with bricks or sized stone blocks and appear to be original. All the stone pillars, formed of two or three stone pieces one above the other and tightly joined together by a system of plug-holes and iron-craps, must also have been originally massive, with brick or stone casings. The slender stone pillars, depicting square capitals and pedestals with octagonal shafts, have recently been restored to their original shape by an outer veneer of bricks.

The mosque, as recorded by J Westland (1874), was once provided inside with two low brick platforms - one near the central mihrab and the other at the eastern end of the bay close to the north of the central nave. Both these platforms have now disappeared. The platforms, if they originally existed, must have served some purposes, to be explained a little later.

Decoration The decoration of the mosque is mostly in terracotta and brick-setting, and a rare example of stone carving in low relief. Although much of the ornamentation has already disappeared due to the ravages of time, enough still survives in the doorway arches, mihrabs, the angles of the intersecting arches below the domes, the interior of the chau-chala vaults, the raised mouldings of the corner towers, the cornices of the compound gateway and the mosque proper. The cornice of the entire building, the boldly projected band and the cornices of the corner towers are adorned with lozenge patterns. The slightly recessed rectangles, which contain the doorway arches, have mouldings of ornamental bricks in their upper parts, while the spandrels and other parts of the doorway arches are both internally and externally decorated with varieties of designs. The spandrels of the central doorway arch in the eastern facade still depict a pair of large full-blown rosettes and at its key point there is a big perpendicularly placed lozenge which, though now bare, must have been originally decorated like those still intact in the inside of the mosque.

Above the archway are three slightly projected horizontal bands - the lowest one depicts a series of hanging flowers, the middle one shows lozenges alternating with small rosettes and the top one is marked with a series of four-petalled flowers. In between these bands are two slightly sunken narrow panels. The upper panel is enriched with scrolls depicting lotus flowers within loops. The remaining panel depicts a row of tri-lobbed arched niches, which are again ornamented with such designs as palm trees, interlocking squares with small rosettes in the centre and leafy plants with flowers. A beautiful triangular pediment, the ornamentation of which has now completely disappeared, crowns this whole composition. The rest of the doorway arches were also decorated with more or less similar terracotta designs. Inside, the spandrels and upper parts of the doorway arches were mostly decorated with terracotta, the motifs of which vary from entrance to entrance.

The qibla wall is internally embellished with ten ornamental engrailed arched-mihrabs. The central mihrab, unlike its flanking counterparts and those of other buildings of Khan Jahan's period, is entirely made of grey sandstone and its ornamentation is in the Muslim style of carving in shallow and low relief. Most of the decorative motifs have disappeared, but much is still preserved in a decaying condition. The large multi-cusped arch of the mihrab is issued from two faceted decorative stone pilasters. The spandrels of this arch are still depicted with tree motif, which, rising out of the vases, is further marked by branches with leaves and flowers. Immediately above the apex of the arch runs a horizontal band decorated with a row of lozenges alternating with rosettes. The semi-circular mihrab niche is internally divided into two halves by a slightly raised band carved with a frieze of lozenges alternating with rosettes. The upper part of the niche, which takes the form of a half-dome, is carved with rows of rosettes, net-patterns and lotus petals. The lower half of the niche, which is semi-circular in shape, is curved with two horizontal rows of rectangular panels, nine in each row. Each of these panels, being separated from the other by a thin band, shows a cusped arch depicting a rosette in the centre and tree motif intertwining similar small rosettes in the spandrels. From the middle of the dividing band of the niche hangs down a single chiselled chain ending with an oblong pendant. This pendant is depicted with a cusped arch, which has a rosette in the centre and in the spandrels. The mihrab is contained within a broad rectangular border filled with varieties of designs, now in a decaying condition. This rectangular border is topped by a pair of boldly projected mouldings carved with friezes of lotus petals, lozenges and rosettes. This whole composition is crowned in the middle by an inlaid square black stone panel. In the centre of this panel there is a large tiered rosette encircled by seven smaller ones.

The remaining nine mihrabs are entirely made of bricks, showing cusping in their faces. Although much of their ornamentation has disappeared, enough still survives to show that these, not unlike the central mihrab, were originally exquisitely decorated, but with terracotta. The motifs and designs used are primarily the same, but they differ in their arrangement from mihrab to mihrab.

The north and south walls are internally marked with decorative cusped niches, twelve in each wall. Each of these niches is topped by a couple of mouldings. While these mouldings show rosettes alternating with diaper motifs, the space in between is ornamented with floral scrolls in terracotta.

The seven chau-chala vaults over the central nave are internally decorated with a delicate pattern formed by the intersection of rafters and horizontally drawn thin brick-bands, which appears to be an exact copy of the bamboo framework of the chau-chala thatched cottage of Bengal. The frame is further distinguished by lotus flowers in terracotta, each placed on the meeting-point of the rafters and horizontal brick-bands. The brick-setting consisting of horizontal rows of bricks set corner-wise and edge-wise, which serve the purpose of pendentives to support the domes above, is unique and gives an appearance of a delicate carved pattern in high relief. The technique continued to be used widely both for constructional and decorative purposes throughout the Sultanate period and even in several monuments erected during the Mughal period.

Observation The Shatgumbad Mosque at Bagerhat appears to have been the earliest as well as the greatest architectural work of Khan Jahan. From outside, the mosque, with its four heavy and attractive corner towers and seventy-seven domes over the roof, offers a wonderful spectacle to the eye, while its interior is imposing. Architecturally the mosque shows the continuity of the building style that had already been started in Bengal and also some new developments taking inspiration both from the region and from outside. Its bastion-like tapering corner towers with their rounded cupolas and two-storied conception, which rise high above the roof, appears to have been dictated by similar Tughlaqian examples of the Khirki (c 1375) and the Kalan Mosques (1380) at Delhi. The circular shape of these corner towers is worth noting as it distinguishes the Khan Jahani group of monuments from other buildings of Khalifatabad.

The interior plan of the mosque - a large central nave with the side wings - follows a style noticed for the first time in Bengal in the adina mosque (1375), which in turn might have been derived from other earlier mosques erected in imitation of the Damascus Jami (705-15). The chau-chala vaults over the central nave, hitherto not used in Bengal architecture and noticed subsequently in the chhota sona mosque (1493-1519) and the lattan mosque (early 16th century) at Gaur, appear to have originated from the chau-chala huts of Bengal.

The beautiful triangular pediment over the central doorway in the eastern facade may also be said to have been copied from the gable ends of the do-chala hut of the land. Similarly a series of off-set and recessed chases in the outer surface of the walls are likely to have been in imitation of the frame-work of the wood and wattle hut of Bengal.

An important feature of the mosque, though unusual in Bengal but noticed in many congregational mosques in northern India, is a small doorway in the back wall beside the central mihrab, the idea of which might have originally been borrowed from those of early mosques in Islam. In early Islam the postern opening of the mosque is known to have been used exclusively by the caliphs, governors or Imams. It is therefore not unlikely that the western doorway of the Shatgumbad Mosque was reserved for Khan Jahan, the governor of Khalifatabad, who had his residence a few yards away to the north of the mosque. Of the two brick platforms, already cited, the one near the central mihrab was perhaps used by Khan Jahan while transacting administrative business, and the other near an eastern doorway was perhaps meant for a religious teacher, who sat on it and expounded Islamic teachings to the people or students. The Shatgumbad Mosque therefore appears to have served triple purposes - a congregational mosque, a parliament or assembly hall like those of early Islam and a madrasa like the Isfahan Jami and the Masjid-i-Jami at Ardistan in Persia.

Origin of the name Literally the term 'Shatgumbad' means sixty domes, but in reality the mosque has eighty-one domes in total - seventy-seven over the roof and four smaller ones over the four corner towers. Two suggestions may be made in this regard. Firstly, the seven chau-chala vaults over the central nave might have given the building the name of Satgumbad (Sat means seven and gumbad means dome), which in course of time has possibly been transformed into Shatgumbad. Secondly, the sixty pillars, which support the huge domed-roof above, might also have originally given the mosque the name of 'Shat Khumbaz' (shat means sixty and khumbaz means pillar). It is not unlikely that the word Khumbaz has subsequently been corrupted into gumbad to give the building the popular name of Shatgumbad. Of the two suggestions the latter seems to be more probable. [MA Bari]

Bibliography Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report, 1903-04, 1906-07, 1917-18, 1921-22, 1929-30, 1930-34; G Bysack, The Antiquities of Bagerhat, JASB, 36, Calcutta, 1867; J Westland, A Report on the District of Jessore, Calcutta, 1874; List of Ancient Monuments in Bengal, Calcutta, 1896; AH Dani, Muslim Architecture in Bengal, Dhaka, 1961; G Michell (ed), The Islamic Heritage of Bengal, Unesco, Paris, 1984.

Chhota Katra (Dhaka) is situated about 200 yards east of the bara katra at hakim habibur rahman lane on the bank of the river Buriganga in Mughal (old) Dhaka.

The Katra is rectangular in plan, 101.20m x 92.05m externally and 81.07m 69.19m internally. The thickness of the outer walls is 0.91 to 1.00m and the maximum thickness of the bastion walls is 1.22m. It is similar in plan to that of the Bara Katra, but is smaller in size. There are two gateways, one on the north and the other on the south. The southern one is the main entrance. Both the gateways, though much altered recently, are still in situ. In the two outer corners of the south wall of the structure there are two octagonal towers. The structures around the open courtyard have undergone much renovation, reconstruction and repair. Many modern extensions were also added to the original building. The three storeyed gateway on the river side has assumed some colonial features. The triple windows and the lofty angle towers reflect the colonial influence during subsequent restoration.

The Chhota Katra is believed to have been built by shaista khan in about 1664 AD. It is also said that the Katra was constructed to accommodate some officials and also a part of Shaista Khan's expanding family.

It is evident that the structure has lost much of its original look through indiscriminate alterations and unworthy restoration, though they have given it some durability. The two Katras of Dhaka have not been taken under the protection of the Department of Archaeology, and the specimens of this type of architecture in Bangladesh are on the verge of total extinction.

Bara Katra an architectural relic of Dhaka city. It is situated to the south of Chawk Bazar close to the bank of the river buriganga.

Originally, the Katra enclosed a quadrangular courtyard with 22 rooms on all of its four sides. Two gateways were erected, one each on the north and south. The ruins consist of an edifice having a river frontage. The southern wing of the structure was planned on a grand scale and was marked with an elaborate three-storeyed gate containing an octagonal central chamber. The remaining portion was two-storeyed and encased by projected octagonal towers.

Bara Katra, Dhaka

The gateway structure is rectangular in plan. It is lofty in height and its fronton is projected towards the river. A tall alcove rising to the second storey reduces the mass of this projection. The wall surface is relieved with panels that are square as well as rectangular and that contain a variety of decorations of four-centred, cusped, horseshoe and flat arches. Above the apex of the alcove open the windows of the third storey. Under the alcove is the main arched entrance which leads to the guardroom. Furthermore, as one passes through two successive archways, one comes across an octagonal domed hall, the ceiling of which is plastered and bears various net-patterns and foliaged designs. The double storeyed structure resolves on both sides of the central entrance into a row of five vaulted rooms in the ground floor and living rooms with a continuous corridor on the upper one.

Likewise, the upper floors of the entrance are furnished with rooms. The three storyed corner towers are hollow and can be approached from the subsidiary structures.

Following the traditional pattern of the caravan-sarai of Central Asia, the Bara Katra was highly fortified and was embellished with all the features of the imperial Mughal style.

The Bara Katra contains two inscriptions in Persian: one records that it was built in 1053 AH (1643-44 AD) and the other contains the date 1055 AH (1645-46 AD) and confirms that shah shuja gave the building to Mir Abul Qasim to be used as a Katra on the condition that the officials in charge of the endowments (waqf) should not take any rent from any deserving person alighting therein.

It should be noted here that more than half of the Katra building has already been destroyed and the building as a whole is in a dilapidated condition. It could not be taken over by the Department of Archaeology owing to the resistance of its owners. The owners have made several alterations to the original character of the building and have also started construction of a new multi-storeyed building in the area. Nevertheless, the surviving ruins stand as one of the most important monuments of Bengal. It is perhaps the most magnificent Mughal edifice of Bangladesh which has a monumental central archway. [Ayesha Begum]

Patharghata  an archaeological site, rather a complex of sites, located in panchbibi upazila under joypurhat district of Bangladesh, extends over an area of approximately 9 sq km on both sides of the Tulsi Ganga river. The remains apparently comprise some mounds ¾ Mission mound, Uchai mound, Baharampur mound, Majar of Nimai Shah, Bader dhap, Santal para mound, Kasiabari mound, Kusumba group of mounds, Gangria group of mounds, Bridhigram group of mounds and Bharampur mound. The mounds, located on the lateritic Barind tract, show traces of architectural remains. The whole area is strewn with ancient potsherds, glazed wares, bricks, brickbats, fragments of terracotta plaques and stone sculptures and other minor artifacts.

Besides the brick structures, the scattered architectural pieces like door jams, door sills and pillars of granite, sand stone and black basalt bear testimony of building activities in the area. A number of solid stone blocks scattered over the riverbed imply the existence of a stone-built bridge or a landing stage at this point. A recent exploration has revealed some more interesting findings like stone flakes and chips, semi-precious stone beads, iron slugs, glass lumps, copper objects like bangles, antimony rods, terracotta balls, coins and a brick made landing platform/ghat. It has been inferred that iron, glass and stone might have come to Patharghata from other region (s) of the sub­ continent. The Tulshi Ganga, which is still connected with the Karatoya, might have played an important role in goods trafficking. The discovery of profuse stone flakes and chips indicates the existence of a stone sculpture-manufacturing centre in the Patharghata area.

The history and chronology of this potential archaeological site has not yet been established firmly. However, on the basis of a few NBPW pieces (?) and a female torso of Kusana style Patharghata may be placed in the early historic period. Some artifacts also belong to Gupta, Pala and Sena periods. Although Brahmanical sculptures are more in number but a few Buddhist icons are also present. An inscription of the Sultanate period has also been reported from Patharghata. [SS Mostafizur Rahman]

Kotalipara a fortified city of the ancient independent kingdom of vanga. Situated on the Ghagar river about 28km southeast of the district town of Gopalganj, it was also known as Chandravarmankot and is mentioned in the Ghughrahati copperplate of Samacharadeva. James wise thought it to be the capital of the 'Gangaridai' state mentioned in Greek accounts. However, it seems more reasonable to link it with the ancient 'Vanga' state.

The independent 'Vanga' state was formed in the 6th century AD in southern and eastern Bengal and parts of western Bengal may have been included in it. The names of three independent kings-gopachandra (c 540 AD), Dharmaditya (c 570 AD) and Samacharadeva (c end of 6th century AD)-are known from six copperplates, five recovered from Kotalipara (Kotalipada) area and one from Burdwan area. From these copperplates and a few coins found at the village of Kurpala, it can be deduced that these kings took the paramount titles of Maharajadhiraja, Nrpadhiraja and Adhimaharaja. Kotalipada was their centre of administration.

However Kotalipara fort is now in ruins. The almost forgotten Chandravarmankot had two parts - the main fort-city and its adjunct. The main fort was rectangular in shape and was spread over an area of about 19 sq km; about 4.75 km in length and 4 km in breadth. The dyke surrounding the fortification wall is still visible. The adjunct city was probably to its southwest on the bank of the Ghagar river. Remarkable archaeological relics have been recovered from the villages of Gugrahati, Kurpala, Guakhola and Majhbari in the region. In a few 6th century copperplates, the Kotalipara area has been mentioned as navyavakashika (new formed land). In 6th century AD, this area was probably an important centre of riverine trade.

A few gold coins of Chandragupta II (c 380 AD) and Skandhagupta (c 455-467 AD) were discovered during land surveys conducted in the Sonakandi fields of Guakhola village. Kotalipara was, in all probability, an important trading centre in addition to being an area where agriculture had flourished. In the two sixth century copperplates found here there are mentions of naudandaka, navatakseni, nauyana and naughata - all indicative of the importance of the riverine traders in the area.

A Surya image was found in this area and has also been mentioned in some written accounts. Though little is known about Kotalipara, the available evidence clearly testify to the antiquity of the place. [Jesmin Sultana]

Darasbari Mosque  is the largest mosque in the Bangladesh part of Gaur-Lakhnauti, now in ruins. It is situated in the Darasbari quarter of the mediaeval city on the west side of the Chhota Sona-Kotwali Darwaza Road, at present a desolated area near the Indian border. The name Darasbari is derived from its being located within a darsbari (place of lesson or learning), pointing to the madrasa to the east of the mosque, separated by a large tank, forming a typical Muslim educational complex. According to its inscription, which is now preserved in the Indian Museum at Calcutta, the mosque was built in 1479 AD by Shamsuddin Abul Muzaffar Yusuf Shah.

The mosque, measuring externally 34m´ 20.6m and internally 30.3m ´ 11.7m represents a typical mediaeval Bengali type Jami Masjid consisting of exposed red-tinged bricks with terracotta ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. It is at present without a roof and has a fallen verandah. The mosque consists of two parts - a verandah in front in the east and the main prayer chamber to its west, the whole being divided longitudinally by a wide nave running east-west. The roof of the prayer chamber consisted of three chauchala vaults over the nave - the middle one larger than the others - and nine inverted tumbler-shaped domes over each side of the nave, making eighteen in all.

Corresponding to these vaults and domes, there were a slightly smaller chauchala vault over the nave of the verandah and three smaller domes on each of its sides, making a grand total of four chauchala vaults and twenty-four domes, all now vanished. The vaults and domes of the roof were carried by brick piers and stone pillars respectively, all now broken and free standing. Above the pillars sprang the pointed arches which held the supporting pendentives filling up the corners of the square base of the dome.

An important feature of the mosque was the existence of a royal gallery (often erroneously described as a ladies gallery) in the northwest corner of the hall, approached from outside through a staired platform protected by armed guards at the entrance. It was this gallery which marked this mosque, like several others in the city, as the Friday Congregational Mosque (Masjid-i-Juma). There was a gate to the north of the mosque, now reduced to debris. The mosque was strengthened in the corners by octagonal towers - those of the east now ruined, keeping only the traces to a certain height.

The ornamentation of the mosque was of most sumptuous character. The outside walls were patterned with vertical offset and inset designs with terracotta panels dominated by hanging motifs on their faces. The inside was patterned with brick settings noticed on the face of the arches and pendentives within. The ornamentation of the mihrabs, set against each of the bays, consisting of engrailed arches with frames of terracotta creepers, foliage, rosettes, spread out plants and hangings motifs are some of the finest specimens of this kind of decoration from Gaur-Lakhnauti. These terracottas are finer than other examples and appear to have been coated with a little glaze to make them look different and attractive. The walls extant to the west and south sides are now mostly the result of restoration work, which obliterated the original terracotta designs. An interesting ornamental motif of the curvilinear cornice was a terracotta flag placed in a running row affirming that the mosque was attended by the builder, and that he was the commander of the army and also of the faithful (amirul mu'minin).

The Darasbari Mosque at one time must have been one of the most beautiful examples of Sultanate mosques in Gaur-Lakhnauti. Built in the early years of the city, this mosque together with other contemporary examples initiated the 'Gauriya' style which spread to other parts of Bangala and came to be known as the independent Bengal style of the mediaeval period. [ABM Husain]

Bibliography  ABM Husain (ed), Gawr-Lakhnawti, Dhaka, 1997.

Ground Plan, Bara Sona Mosque

Moreover, the style of the mosque is in mark contrast to that of the bagha mosque, built by Nusrat Shah, which is decorated in almost all its parts with terracotta ornaments in conformity with the Islamic concept of horror vacui. The Bara Sona is plain and almost devoid of ornamentation except perhaps the mihrabs, which being the most important part could be imagined to have been decorated profusely like all other mosques, but are now all not to be seen. The Bara Sona has close resemblance in general appearance with the Chhota Sona built by a wali of Alauddin husain shah, perhaps during the early part of his reign. The similarity between the two mosques, and the contents of the recently discovered inscription which suggests a date of 1523 AD imply that the mosque in all probability was constructed during the last years of the reign of Alauddin Husain Shah, who during the later part of his reign founded a city named Buzurg Husaynabad to the north and northwest of the original city near Ramkeli. The city, probably unfinished, has now vanished, but could one of its symbols, the Jami Mosque, point to this mosque, built in conformity with the power and dignity of a sultan who was not only a king but also the Commander of the Faithful by 'deed and testimony'?

On stylistic ground the date of the dhakhil darwaza has also been attributed to this Sultan. The mosque is generally known as a baraduari for having twelve doors. This is perhaps an expression of greatness in size. Abid Ali explains it in a different way by saying that 'the name 'Baraduari', ordinarily meaning 'an audience hall', was given to the mosque on account of the spacious courtyard in front of the mosque'.

The mosque is a rectangular building, brick faced with stone, and measures 51.20m by 23.15m with the usual octagonal towers at the corners. In front there is a spacious veranda, running north south, with eleven pointed arched doorways in front, and one on each of the sides for entrance. The mosque is three aisles deep with three additional entrances on the north and south sides, having thus a total of forty-four domes built on pendentives carried by spacious rectangular columns. At present, only the domes of the veranda and the lateral walls of the mosque remain. On the northwest corner of the mosque, there was once a royal gallery covering an area of four bays with four domes above. Like all other mosques, the entrance to the gallery was from outside. The mihrabs of the mosque, corresponding to the eleven doorways, are now all dilapidated.

The mosque has two gateways, still surviving, to its east and north, making space for an open courtyard in front. The gateways are similar, having a vaulted passage through the middle, and correspond to a roof, curvilinear in form, to that of the main building.

The simplicity of the building has not been satisfactorily explained. But a comparison with larger monuments of the medieval period in the Indian subcontinent may offer a clue to its composition. It appears that in Indo-Muslim architecture 'beauty' and 'fineness' went in general with smaller creations. The larger the building, the greater was the simplicity. 'Majesty' and 'overwork' did not always go together, and the masons of the Bara Sona had clearly such a vision in mind. Moreover, if the mosque was the work of the later part of Husain Shah's reign, the impact of the simple life of an older person must also have inspired the design. [ABM Husain]

Chhota Sona Mosque  sometimes described as a 'gem of Sultanate architecture' is situated about 3 kilometres due south of kotwali darwaza and half a kilometre to the southeast of the tahkhana complex in the Firuzpur Quarters of gaur-Lakhnauti, the capital of Sultanate Bengal. It occupies the western end of the southern bank of a large tank. A little to the west of the mosque is a modern two-storied Guest House, built several years ago by the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Bangladesh. In between the Guest House and the mosque there runs north-south a modern road, which appears to have been of earlier origins, connecting the main city of Gaur-Lakhnauti with its suburb to the south through the Kotwali Darwaza.

An inscription tablet still fixed over the central doorway records that the mosque was built by one Majlis-i-Majalis Majlis Mansur Wali Muhammad bin Ali. The letters in the inscription, giving the exact date of construction, have been obliterated. But the name of Sultan Alauddin husain shah in the inscription suggests that the mosque must have been built sometime during his rule (1494 -1519 AD).

Chhota Sona Mosque, Gaur-Lakhnauti

The mosque is one of the best-preserved Sultanate monuments under the protection of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Bangladesh. The gilding employed in the ornamentation that has given the building its appellation Chhota Sona Masjid (Little Golden Mosque) does not exist now. An outer wall originally surrounded the mosque premise, which covers an area of 42m from east to west and 43m. from north to south, with a gateway in the middle of the east side. Leaving only the gateway, the entire surrounding wall has completely disappeared, but its trace can still be clearly detected at places. A barbed wire fencing has now been erected in line with the original enclosure wall. Local people report that near the gateway, there was originally a stepped masonry ghat with approaches from the south.

Built of brick and stone, the mosque proper forms a rectangle. It has an outside dimension of 25.1m from north to south and 15.9m from east to west. All four walls are veneered externally and to some extent also internally with granite stone blocks. The stone facings on the southern side of the west wall have disappeared because of conservation works after its destruction by the great earthquake of 1897. The four exterior angles of the building are strengthened with polygonal towers, of which nine facets are visible. There is a rectangular projection in the centre of the exterior face of the back wall corresponding to the central mihrab. The cornices are bow-curved and have stone gutters to drain off the rainwater from the roof.

There are five doorways in the eastern facade and three each on the north and south walls. Corresponding to the archways in the east wall there are five semi-circular mihrabs inside the west wall. The stones of most of these mirabs are now gone making the entire west wall bare, although at one time they constituted the most beautiful part of the Mosque.

The interior of the mosque, measuring 21.2m by 12.2m. is divided into three north - south aisles by two rows of stone pillars, four in each row. A wide central nave has cut the aisles into two equal halves, each half showing six equal square units of 3.5 m a side. The interior of the mosque has therefore a total of fifteen units, of which the three rectangular units are covered with chauchala vaults, and each of the remaining twelve square units by an inverted tumbler-shaped dome. They are all carried on radiating arches that spring from the free standing stone pillars and the engaged pilasters. But the upper corners in between the arches of the units are filled with corbelled brick pendentives to make up the transitional phase for the domes. At the northwest corner of the mosque there is a royal gallery forming an upper floor that is still standing, albeit in a dilapidated condition. It was approached from the northwest corner of the Mosque through a stepped platform connected with a doorway. The gallery has a mihrab in front.

The gateway of the surrounding outer wall in the east, now thoroughly renovated, is 7.6m long and 2.4m wide, which is in alignment with the central doorway of the mosque proper. The entire gateway was originally veneered with stone, but is now painted in stone-colour.

Stone carving, brick setting, terracotta gilding and glazed tiles were used in decorating the building, and of them the first one plays the dominant role. All fifteen domes and vaults over the roof, as witnessed by Creighton and cunningham, were gilded, but no traces of gilding now remain. The subject-matters of the stone carving were chosen according to the demand of the spaces, eg, the borders of the panels with creepers and their interior with various forms of stylized hanging patterns adopted from the chain and bell of the Hindu period. The spandrels of arches and the spaces above the frames have always been dotted with rosettes, an attractive form of design, but all carved differently. The interior of the domes and vaults are decorated with terracottas, those of the vaults being copies of the bamboo frames of local huts. The most noticeable form of ornamentation is the stone moulding encircling the corner towers. This constitutes the cornices and the lines above the doorways and frames. It should be noted that all the frontal archways and those of the mihrabs were all cusped, giving additional beauty to the monument.

The gateway in the east, like that of the mosque, was at one time veneered with stone-slabs carved with varieties of designs. But these designs have now mostly disappeared leaving a few boldly projected rosettes here and there.

At a distance of 14.5m to the east of the gateway is a stone platform measuring 4.2m north - south and 6.2m east - west. It is 1 m high and has a stone column to each of its four angles. Over the platform are two tomb-sarcophagi with their longer axis in the north - south alignment. Both consist of rectangular stepped terraces of black stone diminishing upwards and a top stone of simple pointed barrel-form containing verses from the Qur'an and some names of God. It is not clear who lies buried here. Cunningham suggests these to have been the tombs of Wali Muhammad, the builder of the Mosque, and his father Ali.

On the southeast corner within the mosque premise are two modern graves, enclosed by a 1.3m high brick wall, 4.1m from north to south and 4.7m from east to west. These two graves belong to Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir (d 14 December 1971) and Major Nazmul Hoque Tulu (d 27 September 1971), who died fighting against the Pakistani Army near Nawabganj town during the Bangladesh war of liberation.

The glamour of Chhota Sona Masjid has now diminished, but it still remains the most attractive monument of Gaur-Lakhnauti and the most desired spot for visitors to the area. [ABM Husain]

Bibliography  Abid Ali Khan and HE Stapleton, Memoris of Gaur and Pandua, Calcutta, 1931; AH Dani, Muslim Architecture in Bengal, Dhaka, 1961; George Michell (ed), The Islamic Heritage of Bengal, Paris, 1984; ABM Husain (ed), Gawr-Lakhnawti, Dhaka, 1997.